Historical Context
The Hyksos, whose name means "Rulers of Foreign Lands," were an Asiatic people who originally migrated to Egypt around the 12th Dynasty, looking for good grazing land for their herds. Settling in the region of the Eastern Delta, they became powerful and ruled Lower Egypt during the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Dynasties. Some scholars think they ruled parts of southern Canaan as well. Eventually they were expelled by Ahmose, founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty (Ben-Tor, 28). Scarabs became the favored type of signet in Egypt, replacing cylinder-seals, in the Middle Kingdom. In some surrounding areas the cylinder-seal retained its popularity, but scarabs were dominant in Palestine as signets and signet- rings (Stewart, 45). Most scarabs were made of steatite, a type of talc, sometimes covered with a green-blue glaze. Other materials used for scarabs include faience, glass, precious metals, ivory, resin, and precious and semi-precious stones such as amethyst, carnelian, agate, onyx, jasper, feldspar, and lapis-lazuli (Ben-Tor, 41).
Archaeological Context
Scarabs can be divided into groupings based on several different aspects. The easiest way to classify them is according to the inscriptions on the bases. Archaeologists have also attempted to devise chronologies based on the backs (clypeus, head, eyes, prothorax, elytra) and sides (claws) (Niccacci, 16). The problem is that there is no chronology based on these traits that is universally accepted; each author has his or her own. This paper will not attempt to deal with the back and side classifications, but only on the bases of scarabs. Hyksos scarabs of the Middle Bronze II period (the Second Intermediate Period in Egypt, 1780-1570 B.C.E.) appear to imitate the Egyptian ones of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Dynasties, but with some changes. Their designs may incorporate a characteristic scroll border (dating to the 12th Dynasty), a kneeling man smelling a lotus flower (characteristic of the early Hyksos period), interlacing and floral motifs, some animals motifs, and hieroglyphic signs. Often the hieroglyphs are poorly done, sometimes making no sense at all. Some of those hieroglyphs that are readable mention the names of 15th and 16th Dynasty Hyksos pharaohs, lesser rulers of towns, and officials of all types (Stewart, 46). Based on her work at Lachish IV, Olga Tufnell has put forth a list of categories into which scarab base designs may be divided. These categories are: royal names; anra formulae (a-n-r); private names; religious and royal emblems; signs of good wishes; animals; plants; and geometric motifs (Niccacci, 20-21). At the Bronze Age Cemetery at Gibeon, excavated by James Pritchard, nine Hyksos scarabs were found (Fig. 70, 14-22). These can be categorized as geometric designs and hieroglyphic designs, as well as one with falcons and royal cobras (uraei). Daphna Ben-Tor describes four main elements of the geometric designs:
1. Spiral scrolls as a design covering the entire base and as a frame. Some of the scrolls are interlocking, while others are single; S-shaped, C-shaped and round or elongated scrolls are found. This design appears in a vast number of variations and was in use throughout the entire period under discussion.
2. Concentric circles, usually covering the entire base, but also used in conjunction with other designs or as a frame. Frequently they are linked by lines to a cross pattern, or combined with the spiral scroll motif.
3. Coiled cord patterns, usually covering the entire base, but sometimes in combination with other elements. In some cases, the pattern is cut and used as a border for a cross pattern or some other cut coiled cord design placed in the center.
4. Cross patterns, consisting of spiral scrolls, concentric circles, floral motifs or coiled cord patterns, covering the entire base (Ben-Tor, 31).
The spiral scrolls, concentric circles, and cross patterns characterize the nine scarabs of Tomb 15, but coiled cord patterns are not found there. The geometric patterns are combined with hieroglyphs. Symmetry is evident in all but one scarab, including those with hieroglyphs. According to Ben-Tor, the hieroglyphic signs usually do not comprise words, but Òare of magical significance and convey blessings or expressions of royal power (Ben-Tor, 31) A frequent combination of letters, in varying order, is "a-n-r." These letters do not make up a word. Some scholars perceive this as a way of writing the name of the sun god, Re. Others suggest that it was inscribed by Asiatics who did not know the meanings of the signs but copied them for aesthetic reasons (Ben-Tor, 32). This assertion is supported by a number of scarabs whose hieroglyphic inscriptions are either stylized decorations that vaguely resemble real signs, and some whose inscriptions are completely garbled and meaningless (Pritchard, 154). Some of the stylized hieroglyphs include signs for life, beautiful, good, lord, the god Ra (Niccacci, 35), and union of the two lands [Upper and Lower Egypt] (Pritchard, 154). Parallels to the widely varied Hyksos scarabs in Pritchard's Tomb 15 at Gibeon can be found. One of the more unusual designs is PritchardÕs Fig. 70:15, a cross pattern with four petals joined by a disk; a parallel comes from Tufnell's Lachish IV 38:306 (Tufnell, 123). PritchardÕs 70:18 resembles Lachish IV (Tufnell) 30:6, both examples of stylized hieroglyphs bordered with three scrolls on each side and a single connecting loop (Pritchard, 154). Further examples of this apparently common design appear at Jericho (Kenyon) Figs. 283:5, 297:9, and 298:8, and there are others at Beth Shean. Pritchard notes that his Fig. 70:19 resembles Lachish IV (Tufnell) 30:10, a cross pattern with concentric circles from the 14th-15th Dynasty, and adds that another parallel exists at Megiddo in Tomb 24 (Guy, Megiddo Tombs) Pl. 105:4. Possibly the most unusual design from Gibeon T15 is Fig. 70:22, with five linked scrolls and four triangles in spaces (Pritchard, 154). The only parallel for this scarab is from Jericho (Kenyon) fig. 288:1, which has joined scrolls and triangles that indicate lotus flowers.
Dating scarabs is very difficult. Scarabs were handed down through many generations, so their depositional context does not necessarily indicate age. Dating scarabs on the basis of design is problematic. The same designs were in use for long periods of time, with styles changing far less rapidly than pottery, for example. Motifs that have been designated as "Hyksos," that is, of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Dynasties, have actually been found on scarabs up through the Nineteenth Dynasty. However, the quality of execution degenerates in the later scarabs (Niccacci, 15), a fact that can be somewhat helpful in establishing chronologies. Some of the designs of Hyksos scarabs, especially scrolls and floral devices, continue all the way through to the 26th Dynasty. The trend of inscribing the names of kings and royal officials is also continuous, showing the significant impact of the Hyksos on the whole history of scarabs and their variants.
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